online lecture 10	video 10
CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT AND TESTING
[ Authentic Assessment Procedures and their Attributes ] [ Using Authentic Assessment Procedures][Performance Assessment ] [Writing Assessment Procedures ][Portfolio Assessment ] [Culminating Exhibitions ]

Your reading for this lecture was Chapters 11 and 12 in the text, Educational Psychology, by Elliott et al. The expectation is that you will use the text to develop, review or update your knowledge of key concepts related to assessing learning and teaching, as is relevant to you as an individual. Your primary learning experiences will also include exploring applications of these assessment approaches, including examining relevant Internet and World Wide Web resources.

INTRODUCTION

In this lecture, we will focus on relatively new approaches to student evaluation -- referred to as authentic assessment procedures. We will explore the purposes and characteristics of authentic assessment approaches and how they can be most useful in teaching and learning. We will not focus on standardized testing; rather, you are referred to the text to examine attributes of standardized tests and how to use them effectively and appropriately.

Standardized tests are developed by test construction experts, administered under uniform conditions in many schools and classrooms, and scored according to uniform procedures. The majority of items in standardized tests typically are ones that can be machine-scored, which results in relatively heavy use of multiple choice and true-false items. Authentic assessment refers to using meaningful and significant "authentic" tasks -- ones measuring the application of learning to real-life problems -- to measure students' learning. Authentic assessments can be integrated within instruction and are designed to be used easily in the classroom.

One of the important differences between standardized testing and authentic assessment relates to the question of the standard against which students' performance is compared -- whether they are "norm-referenced" or "criterion-referenced". Standardized tests are generally norm-referenced tests. That is, a student or group of students is compared against the performance of students elsewhere and their scores are reported in terms of such things as percentile rankings. Authentic assessment measures typically use criterion-referenced scoring. Student performance is compared and judged in relation to an agreed upon set of standards related to the content being tested. 

AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES AND THEIR ATTRIBUTES

A demand for increased accountability accompanied both the publication of A Nation At Risk (1983) and the education reform movement that began in the U.S. in the mid-1980s, Significant questions arose about the best ways to evaluate students' performance. In large part, these concerns related to the fact that traditional paper-and-pencil tests often measured relatively low-level knowledge and did not enable educators to examine the processes students use to solve problems and come to answers.

Considerable research has been conducted about authentic assessment. These assessment procedures attempt to measure directly the student's ability to perform in a subject area or on cross-curricular problems. They are designed to resemble real tasks as much as possible, to require higher-order thinking, and to include a variety of different approaches that allow for a valid (i.e., accurate) measurement and for reporting the student's competence.

Different Types of Authentic Assessments

There are several types of authentic assessment procedures, each of which is used by teachers and schools, sometimes including experimentation with them:

• Performance Assessments
• Writing Tests
• Portfolios
• Culminating Exhibitions

Each of the four types of authentic assessments has distinct attributes and is suitable for particular purposes. In general, it is desirable to use more than one type of testing when you are assessing something important -- which, of course, should be the primary focus of assessment. The key intent of each of the different forms of authentic assessment is to test what is important to know, not just what is easy to measure.

A benefit of authentic assessment measures is that they enable teachers to measure both the content of the curriculum (what) and the process (how) students approach tasks or solve problems. As such, they can be especially helpful in guiding instructional planning. For this to occur, assessments must be carefully aligned with a teacher's instructional goals.

Most authentic assessments measure complex dimensions of knowing. It is important that students have adequate time to be assessed or take the assessment tests. In fact, one of the distinct differences between authentic assessments and standardized tests is that there is (a) generally more time overall and (b) considerably more latitude in the time allowed for students to complete authentic assessment tasks. A description of the four types of authentic assessments identified earlier is provided below.

• Performance assessment refers to students' ability to perform tasks applying their knowledge, demonstrating that they can use the knowledge in meaningful problem-solving. Examples include students performing experiments in science in which they demonstrate understanding of how to conduct research, of their knowledge in a particular area, and of their ability to apply the scientific process, including, for example, analyzing data and drawing meaningful inferences. Many other examples are found in mathematics as students apply mathematical operations to solve problems and communicate their results.
• Writing assessments can be used both to measure language arts skills and to measure content knowledge in a variety of areas. Students are typically asked to write on assigned topics or to write using different types of writing (e.g., report, reflective essay). Typically, writing assessments require thinking, problem-solving, composing and appropriate written expression. They are intended to be challenging for students but accessible to all of them and often are similar to challenging assignments that teachers might give their students. They are intended to produce thoughtful, not just proficient, analysis and writing, whether they are assessing language arts skills or subject matter knowledge.
• Portfolio assessment increasingly used in schools throughout the nation. Portfolios are purposefully collected examples of students' work that describe their achievements, progress and effort. Both processes and products of learning are included. Portfolios may focus on one academic discipline or on more than one. Portfolio development emphasizes student participation in selecting portfolio materials. Student self-evaluation is considered an important component of portfolio development. Portfolios, because they feature children's authentic work samples, enable parents to better understand their children's school activities and their development.
• Culminating exhibitions require students to demonstrate that they have learned the content and skills central to a class or appropriate for graduation. This approach has been developed in large part, by and reflects the principles of the Coalition of Essential Schools led by Theodore Sizer. The purpose of culminating exhibitions is to have students exhibit mastery by addressing significant challenges that require interdisciplinary analysis or are relevant to a particular field of study. The science fair project is a common culminating exhibition. Another example of a culminating exhibition is an interdisciplinary project in which students answer fundamental questions within a discipline, which the Coalition of Essential Schools refers to as "essential questions." An example in mathematics would entail students solving a complex, real-world problem involving multiple interdependent steps and requiring them to apply a range of mathematical and analytical skills.

We will now look at the procedures used to conduct each of the four types of authentic assessment approaches.

USING AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES

Learning how to use authentic assessment requires understanding the procedures involved in their development, administration and scoring. Each of these areas is addressed below. The approaches illustrate the many ways in which authentic assessment procedures are now being used in schools throughout the nation, with student performance being presented to parents in new ways.

It is essential to remember that one of the purposes of authentic assessment is to integrate instruction and assessment. Testing does not need to be separate from regular instruction. Learning tasks can be readily designed as assessment tasks, rather than requiring significant amounts of classroom time for testing.

It is also important to note that authentic assessment procedures are often different from the kind of assessment that current adults, young and old, experienced in their own schooling, when paper-and-pencil and standardized tests (discussed later in this lecture) were used to assess learning and assign grades.

To develop an appreciation of the significance of the movement toward authentic assessment, it is valuable to think of how a prospective teacher's competence is evaluated. The question of whether standardized tests measuring knowledge in certain areas is the best way to assess the prospective teacher's potential needs to be addressed. Authentic procedures would focus, instead, on such things as the individual's ability to actually develop a lesson plan, teach a lesson, assess a student's learning, and manage a classroom. These things might be measured through a portfolio which includes video segments of the individual working with a class and with individual students.

The following section examines procedures associated with the four types of authentic assessment.

Performance Assessment 

While procedures used in performance assessment relate in considerable part to the subject matter being assessed (e.g., mathematics, science), there are some overall approaches that are useful across subjects and grade levels. The four primary steps involved in conducting performance assessment are described below.

Identify the educational outcome(s) to be measured: These should be derived from instructional objectives. They relate to the question, "What are students expected to know and be able to do?" In general, because performance assessment is authentic and involves complex tasks, it will measure learning in more than one area and will be related to more than one educational objective.

Develop assessment tasks that students can perform to demonstrate their learning of the outcome: these should be activities that not only assess knowledge but that also promote students' understanding through their application of knowledge. Numerous ways of demonstrating learning are appropriate -- speaking, role playing, writing, conducting an experiment, solving a problem, etc.

Determine whether to administer the assessment alone or collaboratively: A key question is whether to allow collaboration. Many performance assessments allow or require collaboration among students, reflecting the fact that collaboration is not only permitted but expected in real life. Decisions need to be made about how the collaboration will be undertaken and about what parts of the assessment students will do alone and what parts together.

Establish criteria and performance standards (referred to as "scoring rubrics") for evaluating student performance: Typically, these will include standards of performance for scores at specified levels. The standards reflect the criteria for excellent performance on the particular task. A general example is given below; it would be developed in specific terms for scoring a particular performance assessment.

• 6 -- Fully achieves the purpose of the task, while insightfully interpreting, extending beyond the task, or raising provocative questions.

  Demonstrates an in-depth understanding of concepts and content.

  Communicates effectively and clearly to various audiences, using dynamic and diverse means.

• 5 -- Accomplishes the purposes of the task.

  Shows clear understanding of concepts.

  Communicates effectively.

• 4 -- Substantially completes purposes of the task.

  Displays understanding of major concepts, even though some less important ideas may be missing.

  Communicates successfully.

• 3 -- Purposes of the task not fully achieved; need elaboration; some strategies may be ineffectual or not appropriate; assumptions about the purposes may be flawed.

  Gaps in conceptual understanding are evident.

  Limits communication to some important ideas; results may be incomplete or not clearly presented.

• 2 -- Important purposes of the task not achieved; work may need redirection; approach to task may lead away from its completion.

  Presents fragmented understanding of concepts; results may be incomplete or arguments may be weak.

  Attempts communication.

• 1 -- Purposes of the task not accomplished.

  Shows little evidence of appropriate reasoning.

  Does not successfully communicate relevant ideas; presents extraneous information.

Writing Assessment Procedures 

Writing assessment is one type of performance assessment and the same overall strategies are used to ensure its effectiveness in measuring and fostering student learning. As in other subject areas, use of performance assessment -- actual writing -- responds directly to long-standing concerns that multiple choice items and other items that do not actually measure use of skills are of questionable validity.

Writing assessment is intended to reveal student writing skills within an integrative activity that establishes a clear purpose and audience for the writing. The student is typically asked to read a prompt, and to respond in writing. The consequence is that an integrated assessment is actually occurring, in which reading skills are also being assessed. Steps within the procedure and scoring can be created to assess reading as well as writing skills.

The question or task is usually an authentic -- that is, realistic, one. The writing assessment may be used to assess knowledge and communication of ideas in a subject area rather than in writing per se. The entire activity, including the purpose of the writing and the audience, is specified in the assessment task. After the student completes the task, the response is analyzed to determine how effectively the student used thinking processes and writing skills.

The four primary steps in conducting writing assessment are described below. They are similar to the general steps used for performance assessment.

Identify the instructional goals and objectives to be assessed: These should be derived from instructional objectives. These again relate to expected student outcomes. It is important that these goals and objectives relate closely to what teachers are doing in the classroom. The assessment should reflect what the teachers who are using it are emphasizing in their classes to achieve instructional objectives.

Select the prompts and writing activities that will measure students' knowledge in the area(s) being assessed: The reading prior to the students' writing (the prompt) and the writing activity should be directly and very closely related. The writing activity should have a clear purpose and be authentic -- i.e., be a meaningful task. The writing activity itself should promote the integration of their knowledge so that it is a valuable learning experience.

Prepare for and administer the assessment: Students need to be provided with a brief, uncomplicated description of the assessment instructions. They need to know what they are supposed to read, what writing is expected of them, where they are expected to do it, and the amount of time they have for the assessment. When the assessment is administered, it is best for the teacher to read through the instructions with the students and to answer any questions they have.

Establish a scoring system or "rubric": A scoring rubric, consisting of criteria and standards for rating student performance must be developed. The rubric will vary depending on whether the writing assessment is primarily focused on writing per se or whether it is being used to assess knowledge in a content area. The rubric will also vary to reflect the teacher's specific instructional objectives and classroom activities.

The term scoring rubric is used because a student will typically be scored on a number of factors and each one of these will be scored on a scale going, for example, from 0 to 4 or 5 or from 1 to 4 or 5. Such factors as Response to Reading Prompt, Management of Content, or Command of Language are identified as table headings and all are scored on the same numeric scale, with individual criteria under each -- creating a two-dimensional scoring rubric.

An example of a 3-point rating scale and criteria for scoring writing assessments that focus on presentation of content is given below.

• 3 -- The response successfully accomplishes the task. Ideas progress logically; a clear sense of purpose and focus is evident. The response is well developed, with ideas explained and supported through specific details and examples.
• 2 -- The response is reasonably successful in accomplishing the task. Ideas process logically, but may lack focus; minor flaws in organization may appear. The response may not be fully developed or explained.

  
  1 -- The response fails to successfully accomplish the task, or it addresses the task in a severely limited way. Ideas are unclear or confusing; no sense of direction is apparent in the writing. The response is minimally developed.

Portfolio Assessment 

As noted earlier, student portfolios are a collection of students work that demonstrates their performance, growth and effort. Portfolios often include work in progress, revisions, student self-analyses, and reflections on what the student has learned.

Examples of portfolio contents often include written works, mathematics works -- including graphs, diagrams, and tables -- projects, student artwork, photographs of products they have created, audio- or video-tapes, laboratory reports, computer work -- the whole range of student products that demonstrate learning in the area being taught and assessed.

Student portfolios have become one of the most frequently used assessment approaches because they

• Track student achievement over time and reveal improvement, thereby being a useful diagnostic tool.
• Preserve a detailed and complex picture of student achievement which is often lost in a simple grade or report card.
• Provide students the opportunity to take responsibility for their own learning -- maintaining and tracking their own record of achievement.
• Help students learn to reflect on and see their own improvement as learners.

The specific components of portfolios vary across grade levels and content areas. Generally, however they include:

Samples of students' work:

1. On a variety of topics and addressing a range of cognitive and language processes
2. Reflecting a range of types of student performances (e.g., quizzes, reports, pictures)
3. Including students' own periodic self-evaluation through journals or grades they give to their work

Discussions by students of the work in their portfolios

This is often a page prior to entries, in which a student indicates:

1. Why he/she have chosen the piece of work
2. What the piece of work shows
3. What he/she want the reader to notice
4. The date when he/she added the item to the portfolio.

Many of the items included in a portfolio are typically performance assessments or writing assessments. They are usually graded by the teacher using the type of rubric described above in the discussion of these two forms of assessment.

Culminating Exhibitions 

Exhibitions are authentic assessments that require integrating a broad range of competencies and require considerable student initiative and responsibility. This approach is used in a number of schools around the nation as "exit" exhibition in which a student is required to demonstrate integration and application of the knowledge and skills they are expected to master at a given level of education. Middle school students might be required to complete a culminating exhibition to move on to high school or high school students to earn a diploma.

The concept of the culminating exhibition is to have students use a variety of thinking skills to address a significant problem that, because it is real, requires interdisciplinary integration of knowledge. It is intended to assess students' critical thinking skills and to cultivate their " thoughtful habits of mind" by requiring them to determine and critically evaluate the information needed to address a particular problem.

The culminating exhibition has been used as a cornerstone of assessment by the Coalition of Essential Schools. It reflects the Coalition's expectation that all students can use their minds well and that schools must provide new proving grounds where students can demonstrate their mastery in public and in personally meaningful ways.

When we look at examples of exhibitions, we see that they include types of assessments that are included within the other to authentic assessment approach described above. One example is the final essay that requires the student to use inquiry and synthesis skills to answer significant and enduring questions (what the Coalition calls "essential questions"). Another example is a project, sometimes undertaken individually, sometimes in a group. Another example is a portfolio. Still another is an oral presentation and answering of questions by a student regarding his work before their class.

Like other authentic assessment approaches, exhibitions are not only evaluative tools but also teaching tools. Their distinctiveness as an evaluation tool is reflected in the criteria used for student assessment. Scoring rubrics are again used, with these often addressing a variety of factors. For example, they might address the way the students work together, how they use their time, their speaking and writing skills, the ideas they incorporate into the exhibition, the quality and effectiveness of the exhibition itself, and the knowledge reflected in it. Scoring rubrics are developed for these criteria. They are decided before the students begin their culminating exhibitions, and they are shared with the students so students have a clear understanding of what is being sought.

An example of a culminating exhibition on Knowledge of Geography is described by the Coalition of Essential Schools:

Knowledge of geography should be demonstrated in a presentation that covers the basic principles and questions of the discipline; identification of basic land forms, places, and names; and the scientific and social significance of geographical information.

Another culminating exhibition described by the Coalition relates to Knowledge of American Government:

Knowledge of American government should be demonstrated by discussion of: the purpose of government; the individual's relation to the state; the ideals, functions, and problems of American political institutions; and selected contemporary issues and political events. Supporting materials can be used.

Similarly, in the case of history, the Coalition suggests that students might be asked:

"What has the greatest influence on historical developments -- societies, events, individuals, or other factors?" Students might be asked to write an essay on this, examining the past, the present and future.

Applying this approach to younger children and to mathematics, the task might be one of planning an entire garden plot. This task is not one developed by the Coalition of Essential Schools, but rather is illustrated on the course videotape:

The children might be given the size of a garden plot, specific requirements that it produce certain quantities of fruits and vegetables, and the amount that the garden can cost. They would then be asked to plan the entire garden and to show the cost and the anticipated outcome.

ASSESSMENT PRACTICES THAT ARE FAIR TO ALL STUDENTS

Many educators believe that authentic assessment approaches have promise for overcoming the questionable accuracy or "validity" associated with using standardized tests to measure performance of students with widely varying backgrounds. These problems are particularly marked in the case of standardized testing of limited-English-proficient students. While authentic assessment approaches themselves must be used carefully to be valid, they do have the potential to increase the fairness of testing in our schools. 

We want to thank you for participating in the course and hope that it has met your needs. If there are any ways in which we can help you to ensure that you have benefited fully from it, please send us a message at ed173ins@olympia.gse.uci.edu. We will continue to hold "any time" office hours at this address and welcome you to stay in touch with us.

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[Authentic Assessment Procedures and their Attributes]

[Using Authentic Assessment Procedures] [Performance Assessment]

[Writing Assessment Procedures] [Portfolio Assessment] [Culminating Exhibitions]