online lecture 3	video 3
PSYCHOSOCIAL AND MORAL GROWTH AND THE LEARNING PROCESS
[Erikson's Theory][Educational Implications of Erikson's Theory] [Kohlberg's Theory][Educational Implications of Kohlberg's Theory]

"Growth consists of a series of challenges....Each successive step is a potential crisis because of a radical change in perspective....Different capacities use different opportunities to become full-grown components of the ever-new configuration that is the growing personality." Erik Erikson,Identity and the Life Cycle,1910

Your reading for this lecture was Chapter 3 in the text, Educational Psychology, by Elliott et. al. As you know, you are encouraged to use the text to develop, review and update your knowledge of the theories discussed in this chapter, as appropriate. At the same time, we hope that a meaningful component of your learning experience will be exploring the added materials related to these theories and their applications available on the Internet and the World Wide Web.

INTRODUCTION

In this lecture, we will examine the foremost theoretical foundations for teaching in the areas of pscychosocial and moral development. We will examine carefully the theories of Erik Erikson and Lawrence Kohlberg, the work of others who later studied these areas, and the applications of the theories to schools and classrooms. The works of Erikson and Kohlberg are interrelated, because each fundamentally deals with questions that relate to the inseparable topics of ego and character development.

The lecture material is derived in part from the text, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning 3rd edition by S. Ellioltt, T. Kratochwill, J. LIttlefield, J. Cook and J. Travers (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2000).

THE PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF ERIK ERIKSON

Erik Erikson was born in Germany of Danish parents in 1902. He left high school without graduating, experiencing what he later referred to as his identity crisis, and spent several years traveling around Europe. In his mid-20s, he was introduced to Freud, who invited him to train as a psychoanalyst. Erikson completed his training at the time Hitler came to power, and to escape the tension in Europe he came to the United States.

Erikson became particularly interested in how social and cultural factors (customs, beliefs, experiences, attitudes and values) influence behavior, thinking and development. He formulated a theory of development taking these factors into account, describing the stages children and adolescents go through in their development and how these are tied to the social context which surrounds them. The theory has considerable implications for teaching and helps provide insights into the difficulties children and adolescents face at different times in their lives.

Erikson described eight stages of psychosocial development, beginning in infancy and continuing through mature adulthood. In each stage, challenges -- psychological crises -- are faced that require individuals to change their concepts of themselves and the world around them. The individual's identity emerges out of a series of challenges and conflicts that make children and adolescents especially vulnerable during particular periods.

Like Piaget, Erikson considered development to consist of a passage through a series of invariant stages that build upon one another. The experiences and outcomes of earlier stages are built upon during the later stages of development.

Erikson described eight stages of personality development in his classic work, Childhood and Society (1963). If each stage is resolved successfully, the child moves on with strength to the next stage. If it is not, however, the child's behavior in later stages will show manifestations of the crises of earlier stages not having been successfully resolved, and these will often be reflected in the school and classroom.

The eight stages and the challenges individuals face within each are identified below. What is especially important in the first five stages -- those that begin with infancy and continue through adolescence -- is to understand how they affect what children and youth bring to school experiences.

1. Trust versus mistrust (birth to 1 year) -- The basic psychosocial perspective that infants develop relates to whether they can or cannot trust their world. Trust is fostered by consistency, continuity and sameness of experience as the infant's basic needs are satisfied. If the infant's needs are met and if parents communicate genuine affection, the child will emerge from this stage thinking of the world as a safe and dependable place. If, however, care is inadequate, inconsistent or harsh, the child will emerge with a sense of the world being an untrustworthy place. These are important differences which may be later reflected in the ways in which children interact with others and deal with their school experiences.
2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt ( 2 to 3 years) -- The key challenge the child faces during the second stage relates to exerting independence. Toddlers have developed the capacity to move about and do many things on their own. If they are allowed to use these emerging skills under judicious guidance from adults, they develop a sense of independence. If they experience an environment in which adults do not allow them or punish them for exploring their environment, they are likely to develop a sense of shame and doubt about their own behaviors. These different outcomes may be later manifested in children's handling of school situations that require autonomy and confidence in their independent pursuits.
3. Initiative versus guilt (4 to 5 years) -- During the preschool years the stage of initiative vs. guilt adds to autonomy the dimension of undertaking, planning and actively pursuing interests. Children who are given the freedom to explore and experiment with adults who answer their questions tend to develop initiative. Those who are restricted and whose initiative is considered to be a problem tend to develop a sense of guilt about pursuing their interests. Again, these outcomes may be seen later as children are confronted with school situations in which they are expected to develop their own ideas (e.g., for writing assignments, book reports or science projects) and to plan and undertake activities using these ideas.
4. Industry versus inferiority (6 to 11 years) -- During the elementary grades, children's behavior is characterized by active curiosity and a sense of how they stand in relation to others. Children want to win recognition and praise through the things they do. If this occurs, they develop a sense of industry. The potential danger of this stage is that the child will not experience success and will develop feelings of inadequacy or inferiority. If children are encouraged to succeed, if those around them praise their efforts, and if they feel competent, they will develop a sense of industry or confidence. If their attempts to succeed fail, if the adults around give them little feedback or negative feedback, and if they feel incompetent, they will develop a sense of inferiority. Schools are the social institutions where these outcomes occur and where their consequences are seen most clearly.
5. Identity versus role confusion (12 to 18 years) -- In the adolescent years, youth develop a desire for independence from parents, achieve physical maturity and are concerned with the question of "who they will become." It is at this stage that they either develop a solid sense of ego identity or are left with considerable role confusion, particularly about their sex-role and their occupational choices. Adolescence is often described for most youth as a period of identity crisis, building on the term Erikson gave to this phenomenon. As they feel insecure about themselves -- about who they are and what they will become -- adolescents become highly dependent upon the peer group for support and susceptible to peer pressure. This is one of the factors underlying the high prevalence of alcohol and drug use and of gang participation among adolescents.
6. Intimacy versus isolation (young adulthood) -- During young adulthood in our society, individuals are expected to establish a close and committed relationship with another person. Failure to do this typically leads to a sense of isolation.
7. Generativity versus stagnation (middle age) -- Erikson describes the need adults feel during middle age to feel generative -- to see one's children grow and develop and to be proud of the productive and creative accomplishments that will leave a legacy for younger generations (such as those that teachers often feel).
8. Integrity versus despair (old age) -- Adults in their older years feel a sense of integrity when they can look back at their lives with pride and a sense of accomplishment but, unfortunately, may experience a feeling of despair if they have not achieved a sense of satisfaction with their lives.

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   Return to the start of this lecture  

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   Focus Area #1: What are the characteristics of children and youth at different stages of psychosocial development?  Based on your own experience:  What types of experiences make elementary children feel successful and tend to be associated with a feeling of industry?  What are typical characteristics of adolescents experiencing an identity crisis?  What are examples of older children's behaviors that reflect a lack of successful resolution of early stages such as those pertaining to trust, independence or initiative?

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   THE EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF ERIKSON'S THEORY  

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   The characteristics of children and adolescents at various stages described by Erikson and the challenges and crises they face during these stages have many implications for classroom teachers. We will focus particularly on the implications of the stages that cover the elementary and secondary grades. In general, the best approach for enhancing ego development among young people is to use empowerment strategies that strengthen their confidence and ability in positive decision-making.

   Industry versus inferiority -- The educational implications of the psychosocial conflict children experience during this stage include those listed below.

   Elementary grade children need to acquire a sense of accomplishment. They need to be congratulated on their successes, to feel proud of their work, to see that the things they do are considered important, to hear compliments, and to consider that they have knowledge in areas that are respected (e.g., related to their interests and hobbies), and to have help in realizing accomplishments.

   Elementary grade children need to feel that they are accepted and that their culture and language are respected. They need to be able to feel proud of their culture and its traditions, to feel their language is accepted, to feel that their parents and families are respected, and to know that their traditions and homelands are considered important.

   Identity versus role confusion -- The educational implications of the psychosocial conflict known as the identity crisis include the ones listed below.

   Adolescents engage in continuous reflection about themselves and need to have opportunities to share concerns with caring adults. They need to be able to ask adults their opinions, to see that these adults understand them as adolescents and want to help them resolve their conflicts, are willing to serve as adult role models to whom they can relate, and can help them identify relevant resources related to adolescent development as they attempt to define themselves.

   Adolescents need help in achieving their sense of identity. It is valuable to develop academic work that enables them to explore alternative adult careers and lives, to teach them to analyze alternatives, to assist them in resisting peer pressure (e.g., related to smoking, alcohol and drugs), to be sympathetic to them when they are having trouble coping with the challenges of adolescence, and to have a range of co-curricular activities (e.g., leadership activities, athletics, clubs) through which their sense of self can develop.

   Focus Area #2: How can teachers help children and youth successfully resolve the challenges of the different stages of psychosocial development?  As a teacher, what can you do to ensure that all the students in your classroom develop a sense of identity?  What can a school or teacher do to help adolescents who are having difficulty resolving their adolescent identity crisis and developing a sense of self?  What can you do as a teacher to educate parents about the important roles they can play to help children and adolescents cope with the challenges of psychosocial development?

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   LAWRENCE KOHLBERG'S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

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   We now want to look at key issues related to moral development as described by Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987). In understanding Kohlberg's theory, it is important to recognize that he is a stage theorist and constructivist whose work began with Piaget's research as a foundation. Throughout his career as a scholar, he used Piaget's theories of cognitive development in order to describe the process of moral development. There has been considerable research on moral development building upon, refining and raising questions about aspects of his pioneering work. Nevertheless, his basic framework continues to provide a solid foundation for understanding moral development among children and adolescents.

   Kohlberg, like Piaget, believed that:

   • Stages of development provide central organizing themes -- they describe the structure of the child's thought at different developmental points in time.
   • The structures of the child's thought are the "rules" children use for processing information and experiences.
   • Cognitive, affective and social development are parallel aspects of the structural changes which take place as the child matures.
   • The stages of mental development help us understand not only children's intellect, but also their social interactions, their moral reasoning and their overall ego development.
   • Stages imply qualitative differences in children's thinking and ways of solving problems.
   • The stages of thinking form an invariant sequence or order of development. Individuals all develop in the same sequence.
   • Mental stages are hierarchical--later stages build on earlier ones.

Kohlberg described three levels of moral development, with each level containing two stages. A brief overview of the three levels and their stages is provided below.

Level 1 -- Preconventional Morality (characteristic of children through approximately age 9)

At this level, children respond primarily to family and social requirements to avoid punishment and receive rewards. The two stages are:

Stage 1-- Punishment-Obedience Orientation

The physical consequences of an action determine whether it is good or bad. Children follow rules essentially to avoid punishment.

Stage 2 -- Instrumental Relativist Orientation

Actions are considered to be "right" if they are instrumental in satisfying a child's own needs or involve an exchange -- two people doing things for one another.

Level 2 -- Conventional Morality (characteristic of children from approximately 9 to 20 years of age)

Stage 3 -- Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation

 The young person believes that the right action is that which is likely to please or impress others.

Stage 4 -- Law and Order Orientation

 At this stage, young people see fixed rules as something that are established and obeyed to maintain the social order.

Level 3 -- Postconventional Morality (usually reached after age 20 and by a relatively small percentage of adults)

Stage 5 -- Social Contract Orientation

Rules are seen as necessary to maintain the social order and as something that should be based on mutual agreement rather than on blind obedience to authority.

Stage 6 -- Universal Ethical Principle Orientation

 Moral decisions should be made in terms of universally applicable ethical principles, and these should reflect fundamental principles of fairness and justice.

Lawrence Kohlberg was very clear in pointing out that the aim of moral education should not be "moral indoctrination," but rather enhancing the development of mature moral judgment and reasoning. The culmination of this process is when students develop a clear understanding of and are able to apply universal principles of justice. Development of moral thinking involves schools having an active role in fostering moral and character development and moral behavior.

Kohlberg and his colleagues undertook studies of ways in which moral judgment and reasoning can be fostered. They found that children's discussion of moral dilemmas was a highly effective way to promote development of moral thinking. In hearing their peers' positions on moral issues, students appeared to reflect on their own thinking with resulting higher levels of moral reasoning.

Kohlberg's findings are consistent with the social dimensions that Piaget sees as playing a part in equilibration and that Vygotsky considers critical in enabling individuals to function within their zone of proximal development. Consistent with Vygotsky's work, Kohlberg and his colleagues found that children and adolescents can, through interaction, comprehend moral reasoning at one stage above their own, but not at higher levels. Kohlberg refers to this as the problem of "developmental match" -- again the concept that is central to Piaget's and Vygotsky's study of learning.

In order to be effective, Kohlberg suggests that activities to foster moral development have the following attributes:

• They should include ideas that are at the level directly above the child's current thinking and that derive from knowledge of the child's current level of moral thinking.
• They should focus on moral reasoning, which can occur in many contexts -- when discussing, for example, an ethical or value issue related to history or government, the environment or characters in a piece of literature.
• They should help the child experience the type of conflict that leads to awareness of the greater adequacy of reasoning differently about the issue and at the next stage. This conflict might result from active participation in discussion, from classroom debate, or from interviews with individuals whose positions are at the higher level of reasoning.

There are many issues central to our schools today that require students to learn to think about values and to reason with morally and ethically sound principles. One of particular importance pertains to students' respecting children of all backgrounds and developing an appreciation of diversity -- rather than demonstrating prejudice toward students whose backgrounds differ from their own.

Finally, it is important to point out that Kohlberg's educational ideas went beyond those related to classroom instruction. He believed deeply in the concept of "Just Schools," in which students helped to establish and maintain high standards of justice, fairness, reciprocity and equality. To create such schools, he considered it critical that the students' voices be heard in decision-making.

There are many similarities between Kohlberg's ideas concerning "Just Schools" and the concerns with ethical values, decency and student participation found in the doctrine of the Coalition of Essential Schools. Founded by Theodore Sizer, the Coalition, one of the most significant educational reform groups in the nation, has a set of principles for Coalition schools that are consistent with Kohlberg's ideals.

[WEBLIOGRAPHY for Lecture 3]

[ED173 Online Home Page]

[UC Irvine Department of Education Home Page]

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[Erikson's Theory][Educational Implications of Erikson's Theory]

[Kohlberg's Theory][Educational Implications of Kohlberg's Theory] 

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