online lecture 4	video 4
LEARNING THEORIES IN PRACTICE
[Introduction][Models of Learning][Social Learning Theories]  [Cognitive Theories][Constructivist Theories][Multiple Intelligences] [Collaborative and Cooperative Learning][Additional References]

"While working on Frames of Mind, I viewed it principally as a contribution to my own discipline of developmental psychology and, more generally, to the behavioral and cognitive sciences. I wanted to broaden conceptions of intelligence to include not only the results of paper-and-pencil tests but also knowledge of the human brain and sensitivity to the diversity of human cultures.  Although I discussed the educational implications of the theory,...my eyes were not beamed to the classroom.  In fact, however, the book has exerted considerable influence in educational quarters." Howard Gardner, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences,1993

We expect you will use the text to develop, review and update your knowledge of theories of learning and teaching, as fits your needs. Your primary learning experiences will also include exploring the concepts in the text, and their applications, using Internet and World Wide Web resources, including those that are hot links within the lecture.

INTRODUCTION

In this lecture, we will examine learning theories in practice. We will address several especially important implications of learning theories for classroom instruction. It is not possible to cover all of the material in the two chapters in this lecture, so topics have been selected that are particularly relevant to enhancing teacher effectiveness. Some of them are discussed in other chapters of the text, as well as in the two cited above, and this additional material is easy to locate using the text index.

The first topic we will explore is different models of learning and their implications for teaching. Behaviorist, social learning, information processing, constructivist and humanistic theories each have distinct-- and different -- implications for teaching. Most of these models apply under some circumstances and to some children.

The next topics we will deal with are concepts of intelligence and the implications for the classroom of individual differences in learning strengths and weaknesses. We will examine in depth the work of Howard Gardner on Multiple Intelligences and will identify many resources for developing an understanding of the unique needs of gifted and talented students and those with disabilities.

We will also examine some concepts that have been found to be especially important in achieving high-quality teaching. One of these concepts is metacognition, or helping students think about their own learning. The second concept concerns enhancing student learning through cooperative and collaborative activities.

These lecture notes are derived in part from the text, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning 3rd edition by S. Ellioltt, T. Kratochwill, J. LIttlefield, J. Cook and J. Travers (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2000). 

MODELS OF LEARNING AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING

Three Views of Learning

Western intellectual tradition embodies three different views of learning. One emphasizes learning as a process of acquiring information and skills that are taught directly to the learner. The second emphasizes learning as a process of interaction between the individual and the physical and social world through which knowledge is constructed. The third emphasizes the emergence of self and knowledge from within -- with the primary role of the environment being to enhance the individual's ability to grow.

BEHAVIORISM AND NEOBEHAVIORISM

1. Behavior expected upon completion of learning is clearly defined;
2. Feedback and reinforcement are essential to student learning;
3. Learning tasks are arranged in a hierarchy from simple to complex;
4. Mastery of basic learning tasks is necessary before advancing to more complex tasks;
5. Individuals are rewarded for correct responses but not for incorrect, or partially correct answers.

In the behaviorist classroom, desired behaviors are reinforced. This may include use of intangible reinforcement such as recognition and praise or tangible reinforcement such a grades, awards and privileges.

Social learning, as described by Albert Bandura, deals with the fact that a fundamental means of learning is through observing and imitating of models. This theory is behaviorist due to Bandura's emphasis on the fact that individuals learn to imitate a behavior because they are reinforced for that behavior.

Teachers serve as models who shape and influence their students' behavior. Books, pictures, television and movies also present models to children and adolescents.

An important tenet of Bandura's theory is that exposure to highly esteemed models can alter students' attitudes. That is, social learning through imitation can significantly modify students' behavior and help them acquire skills.

COGNITIVE THEORIES

Two different sets of theories fit within the cognitive model, which focuses on what occurs within the child's mind in the process of learning. The two are information processing theories and constructivist theories.

INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORIES

During the 1940s, many psychologists and "cognitive scientists" became impatient with behaviorist views that did not deal with the brain and with higher-level, problem-solving processes. Questions about human language, planning, problem solving and imagination could not be addressed within behaviorist theory.

One of the first information processing theorists, Herbert Simon, drew an analogy between the computer and human mental processes. Since that time, information processing models have looked at the human learner as a processor of information in much the same way a computer is. Information is "input" from the environment. It is processed and stored in memory and then can later be "output" through a search and retrieval process.

Cognitive information processing theorists have helped to conceptualize the processes of attention, memory and learning. They emphasize that learning results from interaction between the environment and the learner's previous experiences and knowledge.

According to information processing theorists, learning is a matter of constructing meaning about our environment based on prior knowledge. In order for information to be processed, it must be connected to existing ideas. The term "schema" is used, much as in Jean Piaget's theory, to refer to existing mental constructs through which new information is processed.

Information Processing theories hold several implications for the classroom, including the following teacher practices that generally enhance children's success in learning:

• Gain the students' attention -- This might be done by using cues to signal that it is time to begin or meaningfully varying voice and voice inflections.

   

• Bring to mind relevant prior learning -- This might involve discussing something students already know that is relevant to the topic they will be studying or relevant to reviewing a previous day's lesson.

   

• Point out what is important to recognize and know -- Using visual representations or outlining the key concepts in a unit of study are examples of how this can be done.

   

• Present information in an organized manner -- Making it easy for students to see the structure of a unit and helping them to see relationships between different concepts helps in implementing this approach.

   

• Show students how to categorize information -- Showing students how to categorize new information and having them develop their own categorizing systems helps them process information.

   

• Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information -- Having students work with and apply new information and enabling them to make links to other knowledge helps create the mental connections that are fundamental to learning.

Each of these principles reflects two fundamental points within information processing theories. First, learning is an active process of the individual's constructing new mental representations or modifying existing ones. Second, these processes can be significantly enhanced through strategies for teaching and for organizing the environment that facilitates acquiring and processing new information.

David Ausubel's Meaningful Reception Theoryis particularly important for effective teaching. This theory, developed over 30 years ago, and other current approaches to learning concern meaningful learning: how students receive, process, and retain large amounts of meaningful material from teacher presentations within school settings. Ausubel, and others after him, focused on the fact that learning occurs when new material is related to relevant ideas in the student's existing cognitive structure -- that is, by linking new information to the learner's prior knowledge.

Advance organizers are valuable instructional tools proposed by Ausubel which has been used effectively by teachers for many years . Organizers help to link new learning material with existing related ideas and to focus attention on meaningful learning. An advance organizer can be a video clip, a discussion, a concept map -- something that will help tie a new concept to an idea a student has already mastered. Ausubel's concepts fit within the direct instruction tradition, and draw upon teacher-centered instructional strategies.

Constructivist theories are based on the premise that individuals learn as a result of their personal generation of meaning from experiences. The teacher's role is to help generate connections between what is to be learned and what the individual already knows or believes. Among the primary constructivist theorists are Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, whose work we examined in Lecture #2.

Constructivist theories emphasize that prior knowledge plays an important role in an individual's efforts to learn new information. They also emphasize the importance of a broad set of experiences with the physical and social world in order for learning to occur. A number of constructivist theories applications are presented below:

Constructivism in Practice

Discovery Learning

Discovery learning is an approach to instruction where students explore and manipulate objects in their environment, solve questions and problems, perform experiments, and develop an understanding of what they are studying through active exploratory learning. Learning materials are carefully structured in order that they will provide students with experiences that help them discover underlying ideas, concepts or patterns.

Many examples of a concept are presented in order that a learner can make generalizations based upon a number of specific examples of experiences. Problems are posed to students for them to find the answer and activities are developed for them to apply new learning to many different situations and kinds of problems. Sometimes these problems are solved alone, but frequently they are solved by learners together.

Many of the learning practices now used to teach elementary science and mathematics are consistent with a discovery learning approach. In teaching "hands-on, minds-on" science, for example, students have the opportunity to construct their own knowledge of the world through exploration and experimentation. In solving problems that apply mathematical concepts and in communicating their mathematical understanding, they need to construct mathematical meaning.

Reading

Constructivist theories provide important insight into the nature of the reading process. Reading is the construction of meaning through interaction with text. This occurs based on readers' existing or prior knowledge about the world. The importance of prior knowledge in reading has been demonstrated in studies that show that readers understand what they read largely in relation to what they already know.

Overall prior knowledge can be expanded continually through a variety of means, including extensive reading and writing. The more students read and write, the more their prior knowledge grows which, in turn, strengthens their ability to construct meaning as they read. Expert readers have strategies that they use to construct meaning before, during and after reading.

A Subject Area Example: Living History

"Living History" is another example of the applied constructivist principles. In students' learning of history, they engage in re-enactments, role playing and simulation. The idea is for them to experience the events and context in a way as close to its reality as possible. By participating directly in historical events, they have the kind of active learning experiences that enable them to find meaning. They are able to understand and analyze historical topics in deeper, more meaningful ways. Through their own experiences of the challenges and problems faced at various times by groups and by individuals, historical events become personally meaningful to them.

Active Thinking About Thinking: Metacognition

Metacognition refers both to the knowledge that individuals have about their own cognitive processes and to their intentional regulation of their cognitive processes to maximize learning and memory. When using metacognitive knowledge, individuals think about how they will manage a task. They analyze what is required and how they are doing and then consider alternate strategies. This monitoring one's progress toward a goal requires thinking about one's own thought processes and about adjustments needed in them. As an example, using metacognition enables us to reflect on how well we understand something and to decide what to do if we recognize that our understanding is incomplete. This active cognitive process is consistent with the meaning-making elements emphasized in constructivist views of learning-- in this case, applied to one's own thoughts.

In essence, critical thinking is reflective thought and reasoning that is focussed on making decisions, often ones that involve important value dimensions. Critical thinking is the cognitive tool that enables individuals to adapt to change. It consists of the thinking skills that promote thoughtful, considered judgements based on available evidence and to act on them. Links to several World Wide Web sites that can help teachers foster critical thinking are found at the end of this lecture.

Humanistic theories primarily focus on issues of students' affect, self-concept, self-esteem and needs. They see learning as a result of positive effect and motivation and satisfaction of needs. They emphasize students' individual uniqueness and the importance of goals, aspirations and self-determination for success. The work of Abraham Maslow, one of the major humanistic psychologists, is discussed in Lecture #6, Motivation in the Classroom.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY

There are a number of different conceptions of intelligence, as discussed in the text, and different definitions of the term. Definitions tend to emphasize the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think analytically, to deal effectively with his or her environment, and to learn from experience in order to adapt to one's environment.

In this lecture, we will not examine psychometric views of intelligence, those developed by such individuals as Binet and Wechsler, whose IQ tests are well known. While there are other important intelligence theorists, we will focus on the work of Howard Gardner and on his Multiple Intelligences Theory.

Gardner emphasized that intelligence entails several different sets of skills for problem-solving that enable the individual to resolve genuine problems. He also placed emphasis on intelligence as the ability to acquire new knowledge and to excel and create new intellectual products across a broad range of different spheres of activities.

Gardner defined seven different types of intelligences, although he also indicated that there may be more types. In fact, he has recently written about "naturalist" intelligence (when students have an understanding of nature, making distinctions and identifying natural patterns and events), which he considers to represent an eighth important type of intelligence.

THE SEVEN INTELLIGENCES

In defining seven different types of intelligences, Gardner emphasized the point that what is important is not how intelligent are you but rather how are you intelligent. His work has made clear to educators in the U.S. and abroad that individuals have patterns of strengths and weaknesses and that creating learning environments responsive to these profiles is a key to success among all students. The seven types of intelligences are described below.

Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence

Verbal/linguistic intelligence is related to words and language -- written and spoken -- and to a considerable degree dominates education in the U.S. It refers to the production of language in all of its many ways. It consists of the ability to think in words and to use language to express and appreciate complex meanings. Authors, poets and journalists are examples of individuals who tend to have high linguistic intelligence.

Logical/Mathematical Intelligence

Logical/mathematical intelligence is often called "scientific thinking" and deals with thinking and reasoning deductively and inductively with numbers, and with the ability to deal with abstractions. It makes it possible to calculate, quantify, consider propositions and hypotheses, and carry out complex mathematical operations. Scientists, mathematicians and computer programmers are people who tend to demonstrate high logical/mathematical intelligence.

Visual/Spatial Intelligence

Visual/spatial intelligence is the capacity to think spatially as is required by sailors, pilots, sculptors, painters and architects. It enables one to perceive visual imagery, to re-create, transform or modify images ,and to navigate through space. It is seen in activities that require the ability to visualize objects from different perspectives. It relies on the ability to visualize an object from multiple perspectives. It includes the capacity to create internal mental images and pictures.

Bodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence

Bodily/kinesthetic intelligence refers to control of one's body and of objects and sensitivity to movement and body language. It relates to physical movement and to "knowing" the movements of one's body, including the brain's motor cortex, which controls bodily motion. It is the ability to use the body in diverse ways, including learning by doing. There is, for example, knowledge in our "fingertips" about keyboarding skills and many other types of knowledge that are bodily/kinesthetic. These types of knowledge enable individuals such as athletes, dancers, surgeons and craftspeople to succeed in their fields and create unique artistic products.

Musical Intelligence

Musical intelligence refers to the capacities to recognize and use rhythmic and tonal patterns, and to sensitivity to sounds from musical instruments, the human voice, nature and the environment. It is seen in individuals who possess an unusual sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm and tone. Individuals demonstrating this type of intelligence typically include composers, conductors, musicians, singers and others who work with music and musical instruments.

Interpersonal Intelligence

Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand and interact successfully with others. It refers to the ability to work cooperatively in a group as well as the ability to communicate, verbally and non-verbally, with other people. It builds on the capacity to notice distinctions among others in moods, temperament, motivations and intentions. People who are high in interpersonal intelligence typically have genuine empathy for others' feelings, fears, concerns and beliefs. This type of intelligence is usually found in counselors, teachers, therapists and others in the "helping professions."

Intrapersonal Intelligence

Intrapersonal intelligence is knowledge of the internal aspects of one's self, including feelings, emotions and thinking processes. It relates to self-reflection, to consciousness of ourselves, and to understanding our self-identity. Individuals who are high in intrapersonal intelligence are able to construct an accurate perception of themselves. They are able to use this knowledge in planning and directing their lives. Individuals with strong intrapersonal intelligence may select fields such as philosophy or theology which deal with issues of one's inner reality.

Gardner's work on multiple intelligences has had a profound impact in schools and classrooms, where there is now an attempt to address the learning strengths of students with varying intelligences. Across the nation, attention has been given to increasing the variety of instructional procedures and classroom activities. Multimedia instruction (e.g., CD-ROM, videodisc, World Wide Web) is increasingly seen as a vehicle for drawing upon several different intelligences, including linguistic intelligence (through narration), visual/spatial intelligence (through imagery), and musical intelligence (through sound). This can supplement such things as hands-on learning, which also draws upon bodily/kinesthetic intelligence, and collaborative learning, thereby expanding the intelligences involved to include intrapersonal intelligence.

Several additional sites on the World Wide Web give additional information about multiple intelligences and their applications to the classroom and are listed at the end of this lecture.

Individual Differences in Learning

Including and going beyond multiple intelligences, there are many ways in which individuals' learning aptitudes differ. Some students are gifted; others have disabilities that affect their learning. A student may be gifted in some areas and have learning difficulties in others. These topics are dealt with in Chapter 6 of the text. Many additional sources of information about children with special needs are contained on the World Wide Web at the sites identified at the end of the lecture. 

COLLABORATIVE LEARNING AND COOPERATIVE LEARNING

At the same time we have come to recognize the many different ways in which individuals learn, educators in the U.S. have begun to embrace collaborative and cooperative learning approaches. Both of these emphases reflect new views of learners and changes in our society. We are moving from an individual, competitive ethos in schools with a narrow definition of intelligence and academic proficiency to a broader view that emphasizes multiple strengths and collaboration. This mirrors changes in the nation's major industries during the past decade.

Collaborative Learning

Collaborative learning is a general term that refers to students working together to solve problems, typically complex ones that require active student exploration. Some students might collect data on an environmental hazard while others look at the laws relating to the hazard. They work together as a group to come up with solutions to meaningful problems. Typically, collaborative learning groups are composed of heterogeneous groups of students who vary in ability levels and expertise, with the groups drawing on the strengths of each of the members.

Studies have shown many benefits of collaborative learning in enhancing student outcomes of schooling. In the process of collaborating, students hear others' points of view and explain their own contributions, frequently enhancing the quality of their thought. Collaborative work has generally been shown to increase student motivation. Students are more motivated because they enjoy working together and because most collaborative tasks give them more control over their learning -- with the opportunity to make decisions about the roles the various students will perform.

Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning has a more specific meaning than collaborative learning. It refers to a teaching strategy in which small teams, typically with students of different ability levels, undertake carefully planned learning activities. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught, but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating a shared atmosphere emphasizing achievement.

Benefits of cooperative learning that have been shown in research include improved academic achievement, increased self-confidence and motivation, and increased liking of school and classmates. In addition, cooperative learning strategies have been shown to be relatively easy to implement and to have such added benefits as increased critical thinking skills and teamwork among students, more positive relations among different ethnic groups, and improved behavior and attendance.

There are several strategies for cooperative learning that can be used with any subject and at almost any grade level. These strategies are described, along with related information on implementating cooperative learning, in the Web sites listed at the end of this lecture.

NEW VIEWS OF LEARNING AND OF LEARNERS

During the past several years, there have been significant changes in theories of learning and in our understanding of individual learners. We have learned that students must construct their own knowledge and that each student brings a profile of intelligences that is distinct. While these new views are extremely important, older understandings about teaching and learning are still highly relevant.

For some students under some circumstances, a highly structured approach to learning that provides reinforcement for success is the most effective strategy. For other students, a student-centered environment in which opportunities are created for meaningful student exploration and discovery are most effective. An effective teacher is able to use a variety of strategies in different situations that fit with the environment and the needs and abilities of the learners.

ADDITIONAL REFERENCES FOR:

| MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES | COLLABORATIVE AND COOPERATIVE LEARNING

|CRITICAL THINKING |GIFTED AND TALENTED |

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

Multiple Intelligences: A Brief Overview

Multiple Ways of Knowing: Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences Extends and Enhances Student Learning

Multiple Intelligences Theory At An Elementary School

Harvard Project Zero: Application of Multiple Intelligences Theory

Cooperative Learning Research

Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning: Issues for Research

Critical Thinking Community

ThinkQuest Internet Contest

Critical Thinking Skills

Teaching Critical Thinking

Resources in Applying Critical Thinking to Reading

Reflective Thought

Welcome to 21st Century Problem Solving

Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric

National Excellence: A Case for Developing America's Talent

ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education

Gifted Resources from ERIC

National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Amendments of 1995: On-line Resources

ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education

Special Education: Effective Teaching Techniques

Special Education Resources on the Internet (SERI)

disABILITY Resources on the Internet

[WEBLIOGRAPHY for Lecture 4]

[ED173 Online Home Page]

[UC Irvine Department of Education Home Page]

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[Introduction ][ Models of Learning][Social Learning Theories]

[Cognitive Theories ][Constructivist Theories ][Multiple Intelligences ]

[Collaborative and Cooperative Learning ][ Additional References]  

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