online lecture 6	video 6
MOTIVATION IN THE CLASSROOM
[Key Issues in Student Motivation] [Differences Between Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation] [Theoretical Frameworks to Help Us Understand Student Motivation] [Abraham Maslow's Theory of Motivation] [Approaches for creating classrooms that are motivating to all students]

Your reading for this lecture was Chapter 9 in the text, Educational Psychology, by Elliott et. al. We expect you will use the text to develop, review and update your knowledge of theories of learning and teaching, as fits your needs. Your primary learning experiences will also include exploring the concepts in the text and their applications using Internet and World Wide Web resources, including those that are hot links within the lecture.

INTRODUCTION

In this lecture, we will examine the application of theories and principles of motivation to help students learn and succeed. We will look at the difference between intrinsic (internal) and extrinsic (external) motivation. We will discuss the ways in which different psychologists have viewed motivation and the relevance of general principles of motivation to teaching.

The primary focus of the lecture will be on applying what is known about student motivation to enhance student involvement and success. We will discuss the importance of students having a sense of purpose and future, having opportunities to succeed, having their improvement recognized, experiencing high expectations, and perceiving that the school environment is a caring and supportive place for them.

These lecture notes are derived in part from the text, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning 3rd edition by S. Ellioltt, T. Kratochwill, J. LIttlefield, J. Cook and J. Travers (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2000).

OVERVIEW OF KEY ISSUES IN STUDENT MOTIVATION

It is often observed that infants and young children seem to be endlessly curious, interested in exploring and learning, and continually trying to make sense of the world around them. However, as children grow, their interest in learning frequently seems to lessen. Learning for many students seems to become a negative rather than a positive experience.

Fully one-quarter of the country's high school students drop out of school before graduating, telling us "with their feet" that they are unmotivated. Many more students stay in school but are frequently "mentally absent," rarely investing themselves in learning experiences.

When we refer to a student's motivation to learn, our focus is on the student's desire to participate and be successful in the learning process. Motivation also addresses the reasons behind student interest or lack of interest in learning. While a number of students may be equally motivated or unmotivated, the factors explaining their involvement in learning may be quite different.

Intrinsic Motivation refers to the desire of students to learn because of their internal motivation. Students who are intrinsically motivated tend to want to learn for the sense of accomplishment and enjoyment they achieve from the learning experience itself. They want to learn "for the sake of learning" and in order to achieve specific objectives. Intrinsic motivation is generally enhanced by students having persona interest in learning activities, helping to set their own learning goals, and being given some degree of freedom and responsibility to undertake learning tasks in ways that they define.

Extrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic motivation refers to the use of rewards to encourage student learning. It includes the use of such things as praise, awards, prizes and grades specifically with the intent of increasing students' motivation to learn through external rewards. Extrinsic motivation to encourage learning is best used as a means of motivating unmotivated students and of enabling them to complete learning tasks so as to experience success. As they begin to be successful, it is possible to built upon their feeling of satisfaction and to develop their intrinsic motivation to learn.

Comparing Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Whether students are intrinsically motivated has a significant impact on learning outcomes. Intrinsically motivated students tend to put more effort into learning, to process information more deeply, and to learn more. When confronted with complex intellectual tasks, they tend to use more logical and decision-making strategies, appearing to be more intellectually engaged in the problems.

Students who are intrinsically motivated to learn tend to prefer tasks that are moderately challenging -- not too easy and not so difficult that they cannot succeed. Students who are not intrinsically motivated tend to seek tasks that are low in the degree of difficulty. They often put forth what can be considered a minimal amount of effort to "be rewarded" or simply "to get by."

A number of theoretical frameworks give valuable insights into understanding student motivation. They tend to be complementary, with each helping to explain the behavior of different students and helping us to understand motivational issues under different circumstances.

Behavioral psychologists, the best known of whom is B.F. Skinner, explain motivation in terms of reinforcement theory. Behavior is shaped and sustained by the consequences the individual receives. Thus, with positive reinforcement, behaviors can be maintained, and with negative reinforcement, they can be reduced or eliminated.

Most educators consider these approaches most suitable for dealing with behavior management problems rather than as a foundation for creating a motivating classroom. By their very nature, they emphasize extrinsic rewards and "punishments," and seem counter to the objective of increasing students' intrinsic motivation by increasing their control over learning.

Social learning theory is a framework developed by Albert Bandura that is relevant to understanding learning and motivation. It is centered around building upon children's and adolescents' imitation of behavior they see in respected models. Students want to themselves behave in the ways in which these valued models act. Hence, they attempt to imitate their behavior. If they receive reinforcement for this behavior, they will continue to demonstrate it, motivated by both their interest in emulating the role models and by the positive reinforcement they have received.

Social learning theory tells us that if students see enthusiastic and engaged teachers, they will tend to model these behaviors. If they see older children or their peers rewarded and recognized for being dedicated learners, they will model their behaviors. They are continually engaged in observational learning, and they are motivated to do the things that "esteemed " models do.

Achievement motivation theory, a valuable framework for understanding motivation in school, was developed by David McClelland. He found, in over 20 years of research, that some individuals seek out challenging and moderately difficult tasks. They attempt to succeed at them, seek feedback, and continually measure their own success.

McClelland's work demonstrated considerable variation in the extent to which individuals exhibit need for achievement. He also found, however, that most individuals can be taught to increase their focus on achieving designated results. He worked with students, providing training in which they learned to set specific objectives and measure their progress toward these objectives. His work was similar to that of other researchers who have studied ways to foster a sense of "personal agency" in individuals by helping them to establish and achieve realistic goals.

Abraham Maslow's work has had a particularly pronounced impact on approaches to motivation in not only K-12 schools but also across industrial sectors. His theory fits within the school of humanistic psychology and reflects an approach in which the full development of the individual -- affectively as well as cognitively -- is the primary concern. Humanistic educators focus on individuals reaching their full potential and consider that a healthy personality, creative thought and "self-actualization" are the paramount goals toward which we should strive.

Maslow's work specifies that individuals have a hierarchy of needs ranging from basic needs for survival and safety to higher-level needs for esteem and self-actualization. The lower-level, more basic needs must be fulfilled in order for the individual to be able to move on to address the higher level needs. The five needs described in Maslow's hierarchy have considerable relevance for teachers and are described below.

Hierarchy of Needs Described by Maslow

• Physiological Needs -- These are primarily biological needs. They include such things as the need for adequate nutrition, shelter, warmth and medical care. They are the strongest needs individuals have and until they are fulfilled, individuals are motivated principally to fulfill them.
• Safety Needs -- After physiological needs, the second most compelling needs that individuals face are safety and security. These include a sense of safety from physical harm at home, at school and in the community, and a sense of economic security. If students do not have their safety needs met, these will be primary concerns for them.
• Belongingness and Love Needs -- When physiological and safety needs have been addressed, the next set of needs -- those related to belongingness, affection and love -- can emerge. Without social relationships, individuals feel a sense of loneliness and alienation. They have a need to feel accepted within their social environment and to both give and receive love and affection in their personal lives.
• Esteem Needs -- If the first three needs are fulfilled, the need for esteem may become dominant. This refers both to self-esteem and to the esteem a person gets from others. Humans have a need for self-respect and a need for respect from others. Esteem results in a sense of self-confidence and of being a valued individual.
• Self-Actualization Needs -- The highest level of needs, those that individuals are able to satisfy when all other more basic needs have been met, is the need for self-actualization . In his highly respected book, Motivation and Personality (1954), Maslow describes self-actualization as a person's need to be and do that for which the person was born. He wrote that:

  Even if all [the other] needs are satisfied, we may still often (if not always) expect that a new discontent and restlessness will arrive unless the individual is doing what he or she, individually, is fitted for. Musicians must make music, artists must paint, poets must write, if they are to be ultimately at peace with themselves. What humans can be, they must be....This we may call self-actualization.

  What is important to recognize, however, is that it is difficult for individuals to be at the place in their lives at which they can fulfill their potential. We certainly see this in children. Too often, their physiological, safety, belongingness or esteem needs interfere with their ability to fulfill their potential. These first four needs, what Maslow calls "deficiency needs," need to be addressed by schools in order for students to be motivated to achieve in school -- sometimes for them to be motivated at all.

  Focus Area #3: Applying Maslow's Theory to the Classroom   What are examples of unmet physiological or safety needs of students you are working with or expect to work with? How could you help to ensure that they are met?  What are examples of unmet belongingness and esteem needs of students you are working with or expect to work with? How could you help to ensure that they are met?  How might you work with parents to have them ensure that your students' deficiency needs are met so that they can move on toward fulfilling their learning potential?

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  WHAT FACTORS AFFECT MOTIVATION? 

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  Teacher Expectations and Student Motivation

  In 1968, a classic study, referred to as Pygmalion in the Classroom, was published by Rosenthal and Jacobsen. In the study, a group of randomly selected teachers were told that a group of students in their classrooms were expected, based on a test they had taken, to be "bloomers" -- to demonstrate an unusually large growth in academic performance during the next year. There was, in fact, no difference between these children and a control group of children. All of the youngsters were re-tested at the end of the school year.

  The group of students whose teachers had been told they would be "bloomers" all scored higher than the control groups. The results were interpreted as indicating that when a teacher expects a child to succeed, the child will do so. This phenomenon of the "self-fulfilling prophecy" has come to be recognized at all levels of education as being extremely important.

  The processes by which these results occur appear to include several factors:

  1. The teacher communicates higher expectations for the child, and the child internalizes these, coming to have greater confidence in his own ability.
  2. The teacher calls on the child more frequently, giving him more opportunities for feedback.
  3. The teacher gives more demanding work to the child, with the result that the child's achievement does improve.
  4. The teacher communicates to parents that the child is doing extremely well, leading to added encouragement and support for the child at home.

  Of greater concern is the question of what might happen to students who are believed to have less potential -- those for whom teacher expectations are low. It has been found that all too frequently:

  1. Students for whom teachers have low expectations are seated farthest from the teachers and interact the least with them.
  2. Students for whom teachers have low expectations receive less attention in the classroom than those who are considered to have higher potential.
  3. Students for whom teachers have low expectations are called on less often than their peers.
  4. Students for whom teachers have low expectations are given less time to answer questions and are interrupted more often than those perceived to be more able.
  5. Students for whom teachers have low expectations are criticized more frequently than their peers and receive praise less often.
  6. Students for whom teachers have low expectations receive less and lower-quality feedback on their assignments than their peers.
  7. Students for whom teachers have low expectations come to perceive themselves as being less capable than their peers and report that they are not as "smart" as these other students.

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  Return to the start of this lecture 

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  APPROACHES FOR CREATING CLASSROOMS THAT ARE MOTIVATING TO ALL STUDENTS  

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  A number of strategies that can be used to enhance the motivation of all students, including those at risk for school failure, are described below.

  Give each student a sense of purpose for learning -- Many students do not have a sense of the value of what they are learning. It is important that they see what they are doing in the classroom as being useful to achieving goals that are meaningful to them personally. Learning that is relevant to their lives and seeing how skills can be applied in the real world can be especially valuable.

  Establish high expectations for all students -- Schools that establish high expectations for all students and that provide support for all students to achieve these expectations have high rates of academic success. It is critical that teachers convey positive and high expectations to each student. This can be done through conveying to the child that "This work is important; I know you can do it; I won't give up on you." Some teachers hold annual "Funerals for I Can'ts" so all children will recognize that in the teachers' eyes they can learn.

  Provide opportunities to succeed -- Teachers need to provide a broad range of activities and assignments for students in order that they can all experience success. Learning activities must be at a level where children can succeed. They should be challenging but achievable. If students need help, this needs to be woven into the learning experience, perhaps through work in collaborative learning groups or through special assistance from the teacher. The important thing is that the task be structured so the child can succeed.

  Recognize incremental improvement -- Students need to receive positive reinforcement for their success since their self-concepts are affected by their perception of themselves as learners. Learning gains may take considerable time for some students. Their incremental improvements must be recognized to motivate them to continue trying and to enable them to feel good about the accomplishments they have made.

  Create a caring and supportive environment -- Teachers need to accept all students and to recognize the stress that many children and adolescents face at school, at home and in the community. Their classroom needs to be a protected place where the children feel support for their learning and sense they are cared about. In study after study, youth of all ages and backgrounds indicate that what they want most in school is a teacher who cares about them.

  Provide guidance and support to the student who is experiencing difficulty -- The benefits of extra help for students who are having difficulty cannot be overstated. This may mean working with the child after school or finding special time for him during the school day. It also may mean working with him to set specific, short-term goals that can help him experience success. Assessing his progress toward achieving these goals is very important as is communicating his success to him and his family.

  Help students who are unmotivated develop a sense that they can succeed and are in control of their own learning -- Frequently, when children experience failure, they begin to perceive that they cannot control their fate in school -- that it is luck or other factors that determine how they do and that they cannot influence these outcomes. In other circumstances, the children develop a negative self-image and label themselves as "dumb." By helping them establish personal goals, more specific objectives, and timelines and actions to achieve them, a teacher can help such children develop a sense of their own personal "agency."

  Focus Area #4: Implementing Successful Strategies for Enhancing Success Among Students Who Appear To be Unmotivated  How might you adjust your instruction to help foster motivation in a student who is experiencing learning difficulties and is not motivated by school?  What individual attention might you give a student who needs help to again become a motivated learner?  What might you do to create a classroom environment that communicates to students it is a supportive and caring one?

  FEAR AND AVOIDANCE OF SUCCESS CAUSE LOW MOTIVATION

  It is important to recognize that in some cases students fear being successful. Research by Matina Horner in 1970 demonstrated a pattern that remains true today. She found that some students may avoid success because they fear that this will jeopardize their relationships with peers. Others may avoid a situation in which their academic achievement conflicts with the expectations held for them by their families and communities.

  Particularly during adolescence, this general fear of success as well as fear of success in specific areas can jeopardize student performance. In the case of mathematics and science, for example, many girls in the U.S. fear being successful, because they see success in these fields as being a male trait. This is of national concern, because most tests of achievement show that, on average, girls begin to fall behind boys in math and science achievement during the middle school years and do not catch up.

  A similar pattern emerges in cases of conflict between the school culture and the culture of students from various different cultural groups. The challenge is to make the school a place which each cultural group sees as representing its values and to have parents and communities work with the school, becoming actively involved in support of their students' learning.

  Summing It All Up  What are three ways you can use your knowledge of approaches to motivation in your current or future teaching?  Under which circumstances would you consider using extrinsic motivation and under which would you use intrinsic motivation? Why?

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  [Key Issues in Student Motivation]

  [Differences Between Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation]

  [Theoretical Frameworks to Help Us Understand Student Motivation]

  [Abraham Maslow's Theory of Motivation]